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Apocope

a deletion of the final element in a word

Syncope

a deletion of a vowel within a word

Aphesis (aphaeresis)

a gradual loss of an unstressed vowel at the beginning of a word

Haplology

a deletion of an entire syllable in a seqence of similar articulation

Epenthesis

a type of intrusion in which an extra sound is inserted in a word

Paragoge

where a sound, usually a vowel, is added finally.

Excrescence

an addition of a consonant to a word

Anaptyxis

an addition of a sound, typically a vowel, between two consonants

Assimilation

an influence exerted by one sound upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become more alike or identical,

Dissimilation

a process through which sounds become less alike

Lenition

a weakening in overall force of sounds, e.g. voiceless sounds become voiced or stop sounds become fricatives

Metathesis

an alternation in the normal sequence of elements in a sentence – usually of sounds, but sometimes syllables or words, usually refers to the interchange of two or more contiguous segments or syllables.

nasal souns

m, n, ng

semi vowels

j, w

front vowels

i, e, ae

PG: a >

> OE: e

PG: u >

> OE: y

PG: x >

> OE: h

PG: gj >

> OE: ćg

WG: an >

> OE: o

real - time studies

studies of linguistic change which attempt to investigate language changes oas they happen in actual time by investigating the speech of particular community and then returning a number of years later to investigate how the speech there has changed

apparent time studies

compares the speech of older speakers with that of younger speaker in a given community

Language obsolescence

the process by which a language ceases to be actively used and is abandoned by its native speakers in favour of another language/other languages

verbicide

an act or instance of destroying a word

reduction

an instance of losing sounds in words

homonymy

the fact of words having the same spelling or pronunciation or both, but different meanings

compounding

The process of word formation that creates compound lexemes. Compounding occurs when two or more words or signs are joined to make a longer word or sign.

affixation

the process of adding a morpheme—or affix—to a word to create either a different form of that word or a new word with a different meaning

backformation

the process of creating a new word by removing affixes from an existing word

conversion

the word formation process whereby words belonging to one word class are created from an existing word belonging to another word class without changes to pronunciation or spelling

abbreviation

shortened form of a word or phrase

acronyms

formed from the first or first few letters of each of the words they are based on

blending

a type of word formation in which two or more words are merged into one so that the blended constituents are either clipped, or partially overlap

commonisation

the formation or development of a common noun, a common adjective, or a verb from a proper noun

reduplication

a widespread linguistic process in which a part or an exact copy of a word is repeated, often for morphological or syntactic reasons

borrowing

the process by which a word from one language is adapted for use in another

sound symbolism

the non-arbitrary mappings that exist between phonetic properties of speech sounds and their meaning

kenning

a two-word phrase used in place of a one-word noun

Broadening

the process by which the meaning of a word changes to become more generalised over time

narrowing

a type of semantic change by which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its earlier meaning

Amelioration

the upgrading or elevation of a word's meaning, as when a word with a negative sense develops a positive one

Deterioration

when a word gains association with a negative stimulus, to then hold negative connotations

Grimm's Law PIE: bh, dh, gh, gwh >

> Grimm's Law PG: b, d, g, gw

Grimm's Law PIE: p, t, k, kw >

> Grimm's Law PG: f, θ, x, xw

Grimm's Law PIE: b, d, g, gw

> Grimm's Law PG: p, t, k, kw

Verner's Law PIE: bh, dh, gh, gwh >

> Verner's Law PG: b, d, g, gw

Verner's Law PIE: p, t, k, kw >

> Verner's Law PG: f, θ, x, xw / b, d, g, gw / p, t, k, kw

Verner's Law PIE: b, d, g, gw >

> Verner's Law PG: p, t, k, kw

Dumbe hundas ne magon beorcan.

Dumb dogs cannot bark.

On þissum geāre næs nān færeld tō Rōme, būtan twēgen hlēaperas Ælfred cyning sende mid gewritum.

On this year there was no journey to Rome, whom King Alfred send with letters

þrīe þegnas cōmon tō Ælfrēde cyninge on ānum bāte.

Three servants came to King Alfred in one boat.

Đæt wǣron þā ǣrestan sćipu þāra Dena þe Angelcynnes land gesōhton.

That were the first Danish ships seen on the English land.

Æþelbriht cyning rīcsode fīf geār.

King Ethelbriht ruled for five years.

Hinguar fǣrlīće, swā swā wulf on land bestealcode and slōg þā lēode, weras, wīf and ćild.

Hinguar suddenly, like a wolf, came to the aldn and then killed the people, men and womean, and children.

On þȳs geāre Norþhymbre and Ēast Engle hæfdon Ælfrēde cyninge āþas geseald.

In this year Northumbrians and East Angles had King Alphred give/make vows.

Se mōna and ealle steorran underfoþ lēoht of þǣre sunnan.

The moon and all of the stars reflect the light from the sun.

On mīnes fæder hūse ealle hȳran hlāf genōhne habbaþ.

In my father's home all servants have enough bread.

Sum mann hæfde twēgen suna and twā dohtor.

Some man had two sons, and two daughters.

Hē biþ gelīć þǣm wīsan were se his hūs ofer stān getimbrede

He is like/similiar to the/a wise man who built his house on the stone

Bēowulf þǣm bātwearde bunden golde sweord gesealde.

Beowuld gave/sold a sword bound in gold to the boatkeeper.