SLA opcja2

ethnicity

most ethnic groups believe that their language is the best medium for preserving and expressing their traditions.

1

However, the Chinese for example, identify themselves ethnically even though they speak languages or dialects which are mutually unintelligible.

2

Some cultures have survived even though their language has virtually disappeared like Yiddish in Georgia or Gullah in North East Florida

3

Language is often used in the exercise of political power, A government can attempt to control its minority groups by banning their language, as Turkey bans the use of Kurdish

VIEWS AND ATTITUDES

There are differences between white and black speakers in the US and many Americans can assign people to one of the two ethnic groups. People do not speak as they do because they are white or black

1

Speakers acquire the linguistic characteristics of those they live in close contact with, There is no racial or physiological basis

matched guise technique in social psychology

is used to investigate language attitudes, It involves playing recordings of different speakers reading aloud the same passage of prose but using different accents, dialects or language

1

The technique is called matched-guise because two of the speakers are the same person appearing in two different guises using two different varieties of language

2

The assumption is that if subjects evaluate this speaker differently in his two different guises the difference in the evaluation cannot be due to the speaker or his voice but to reactions to his accent dialect or language

Social class

Social stratification is reflected in language varieties; social class dialects differ in pronunciation grammar and vocabulary

REGIONAL AND SOCIAL DIALECTS COMPARISON

There are similarities between the emergence of regional and social varieties mainly because of barriers and distance, Physical isolation of villages may explain why their dialects are different.

1

But instead of rivers or mountains, there are also social barriers of class, age, race or religion and social distance between the highest and the lowest classes which underlie language variation

Social isolation

of some groups may explain why their languages or dialects remain relatively unaffected by those of other groups

1

religious groups in Baghdad have limited contact with each other and Christians, Moslems, Jews maintained distinctive dialects, Social distance between the castes in an Indian village leads to differences in speech

Social distance

between the castes in an Indian village leads to differences in speech

SOCIALLY PRESTIGIOUS

are those features adopted by a high status group as linguistic indications of social status

STIGMATIZED VARIANTS

are those features associated with low-status groups. E. g Midwestern cities

PROCESS OF ASSIMILATION

There is some movement in the social hierarchy and then the speakers attaining a higher status adjust linguistically to a particular dialect.

1

lower classes tend to assimilate language features associated with high status groups

HYPERCORRECTION

When a particular language feature is highly valued in a speech community, the speaker from a lower class may overextend it and then we have to do with hypercorrection

1

which is overextension of favoured feature to linguistic environments in which the feature is never used by native users

RESTRICTED and ELABORATED CODE

According to the policy makers in postwar Britain in the late fifties, Working class children didn't perform so well at school as middle-class children of the same intelligence

1

Basil Bernstein showed that some working-class children have access to and use only restricted code which is more context dependent

2

for example in the formal interview situation with a middle class adult the children used short or monosyllabic responses or many pronouns

3

Whereas middle-class children have access to both “ restricted code and elaborated code, which is more formal more explicit, and tend to use elaborated code

Age

Within a speech community there is a system of social rules of language behaviour for particular age groups

1

the use of slang by teenagers can be accepted in certain situations, but the same lg used by middle-aged persons, may be regarded as highly inappropriate and received with shock or disgust

PRE ADOLESCENT STAGE

can be characterized by the use of peer group, local dialect with a great amount of stigmatized forms and little stylistic variation

1

Very often the speakers first reject parental norms and then gradually approximate to adult patterns during their school years

Adult stage

further education and achievement of social status may bring about an attempt to conform their speech to status groups to modify it towards prestige forms and bigger stylistic variation

Old age stage

Older people used to preserve some language patterns learned early in life although they are already out of use and sound peculiar to the representatives of the younger generation

1

there occur differences in pronunciation and grammar as well old people do not seem to pay much attention to speech and also their stylistic variation tends to diminish

WHY IS WOMENS SPEECH DIFFERENT

Otto Jespersen claimed that the differences have a biological basis, There are some differences in neurophysiological processes.

1

phonological processing in males is located in the left hemisphere, in females both, But there is no evidence that such differences account for differences between male and female speech

2

The biological basis and the physiology of the vocal tract can only explain the differences in the height of pitch The vocal cords are shorter, lighter, more stretched Much more explanation lies within the social context

WOMAN SOCIAL CLASS

women speech is generally more correct, standard as they are more status conscious They are more sensitive to the prestige pattern and the social significance related linguistic variables

WOMAN Social roles

Language differences reflect social roles laid down by society, Expressive role imputed to women and the instrumental role associated with men

1

Hence occupations are associated with men, and women are expected to run the house take care of children be nice to hardworking husbands

Male dominance

Male dominance in the language is a reflection of men’s superior position in a society and the role they have traditionally played

SPEECH ACT THEORY AND ITS FOUNDERS

Speech act theory was first formulated in 1962 by the philosopher John Austin

WHAT IS A SPEECH ACT

Speech acts are all the things we do when we speak, actions performed by a speaker in uttering a sentence such as requesting commanding questioning and informing

FUNCTIONS OR SPEECH ACTS

In one sense we are talking about functions our purposes, intentions, but we are also concerned what the speakers are doing with language and what they are saying

1

we say a particular bit of speech is a request or an instruction we are concentrating on what that piece of language is doing, or how the listener react and then we deal with speech acts

A LOCUTIONARY ACT

It is Making a meaningful utterance, It is the act of saying something in the full sense of say by means of grammar lexis and extratextual information

AN ILLOCUTIONARY ACT

It may be an invitation to someone to shut the window – this is the underlying force why the speaker has made an utterance, the intended action by the speaker

1

The illocutionary act or illocutionary force can be achieved by means of certain words expressing assertion, prediction, warning, I warn you, PRAGMATIC MEANING in the CONTEXT

A PERLOCUTIONARY ACT

It reflects the consequence of the locutionary and illocutionary acts, to designate an utterance that has an effect upon the actions, thoughts, or feelings of the listener

1

An utterance may have such an effect on the listener that he becomes alarmed convinced, surprised, or persuaded, It is not under his control and then he may meet the unintended result

THE UPSHOT

People don’t say what they mean and there are several reasons for speaking indirectly, it enables them to retreat in front of danger

1

Indirection also enables us to give others the option of retreat. “Are you busy?”is a more avoidable request than‘Sit down and talk to me’

2

The person then might answer Yes, I am, Sorry, because you have given the option of retreat, you can also retreat saying, Oh never mind I was just wondering if...

PERFORMATIVES

A perfomative utterance is one that describes some act and simultaneously performs that act, Examples of perfomative verbs are, promise, beg, admit

DECLARATIONS

Austin also isolated a group of performatives which have a conventional, ritualistic nature. When the speaker says I name this ship “The Queen Elizabeth”, she is performing the action of naming the ship

1

Other ritualistic examples, of a conventional nature: swearing an oath, sentencing a criminal, opening a building, arresting an offender.

OTHER PERFORMATIVES

Other performatives are also utterances in which saying is doing, but, unlike declarations their related verbs for example vow, arrest, declare, etc are not always actually said

PROBLEMS WITH RECOGNIZING PERFORMATIVES

The form of performatives is usually the first person singular, Simple Present, active voice, but not always

FELICITY CONDITIONS

The felicity conditions of an illocutionary act, are conditions that must be fulfilled, in the situation in which the act is carried out, if the act is to be said or to be carried out properly

Felicity conditions for declarations 1

There must exist an accepted procedure, having a certain effect, procedure for christening babies, not dogs, naming ships, not houses, These procedures may be different in certain communities

2, The particular persons and circumstances must be appropriate for the invocation of the particular procedure

The particular persons, and circumstances must be appropriate for the particular procedure, The uttering itself of the correct and appropriate words is insufficient to achieve the successful performance of the act

example

the person for baptising the child is not a priest, the blacksmith reading the marriage service - the ceremonies are invalid.

3 The procedure must be executed by all the participants correctly and completely

The procedure must be executed by all the participants correctly and completely During the marriage ceremony: “Do you take this woman?”“Yes” is an unaccepted answer.

Felicity conditions for other performatives

John Searle worked out the conditions for the act of “ordering”, if certain conditions are in operation, and known to be in operation by both, the sender and the receiver

1, the sender believes the action should be done

If I order someone to clean their boots when I do not really believe that it should be done, then my order is insincere.

2, the receiver has the ability to do the action

I can order someone to clean their boots, but not to eat the Eiffel Tower - they will not have the ability

3, the receiver has the obligation to do the action

My order will not succeed as an order unless the person I am talking to is obliged to clean his boots.

4, the sender has the right to tell the receiver to do the action.

I have the right and the power to make him do so

CONVERSATION TURN TAKING

Especially in formal situations there are clear rules on the order of speaking in parliament or other public meetings, a chairperson decides who can speak and how long

1

In informal conversations turn-taking may depend on power and status who has the floor varies according to rules of the social group students will usually fall silent when the professor speaks whether they are in the bar or at the seminar

Strategies for taking a turn

using interjections to signal a request for a turn, such as, Mm-hmm, Yeah and rising intonation, using facial or other gestures to indicate a wish to take a turn

Strategies for holding a turn

through intonation using expressions to suggest continuity, such as First Another thing Then

Strategies for passing a turn to somebody else

using phonological signals, such as slowing down the final syllables of an utterance and increasing the pitch,

1

pausing to provide an opportunity for someone to take up the turn; using a facial or bodily gesture to signal that a turn is finished

Turn types

ADJACENCY PAIRS, INSERTION SEQUENCE, SIDE SEQUENCE,

ADJACENCY PAIRS

Question predicts an answer A greeting, for example, is likely to be answered by another greeting, Hi! Oh hello! Congratulations, thanks, Apology, acceptance

1

In an adjacency pair, there is often a choice of two likely responses one is the preferred response because it occurs most frequently, the other the dispreferred response because it is less common

INSERTION SEQUENCE

Sometimes the second part of an adjacency pair can be delayed, one question and answer contains another, like this: Question, Question, Anserw

1

It might mean avoiding the topic, being polite or afraid of telling the truth

SIDE SEQUENCE

Sometimes speakers switch from one topic to another unrelated one, and then back again

CLARIFICATION OR REPAIR

Here the participants correct their own words or those of another participant to achieve a communicative effect, Together they negotiate a solution to the problem

Closing a conversation and termination of the topic

The ending must be signalled so that the other participants know it is finished, Such signals may include particular words like, Anyway, So

COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLE

Herbert Paul Grice offered a theory which he called conversational implicature and which attempted to explain what people mean saying something, why don’t they say directly what they mean

MAXIM OF QUALITY- TRUTH

say only what is true and does not give information that is false or that is not supported by evidence

MAXIM OF QUANTITY-INFORMATION

economy of word not long sentences say much as neccesary

MAXIM OF RELEVANCE

say what is important and important aspects to discussion

MAXIM OF MANNER - CLARITY

Be clear avoid ambiguilty

VIOLATING CO-OPERATION MAXIMS

The sender INTENDS the receiver to perceive them as such, and in fact, the receiver does perceive them as such Communication may break down if e.g. the receiver does not realize that the violation is deliberate

VIOLATING quality maxim

TO FLOUT very often for effect

VIOLATING quantity maxim

We often say more than we need for example to mark a sense of respect

VIOLATING Maxim of relevance

to signal embarrassment or a desire to change the subject

VIOLATING The maxim of manner

is violated for humour (puns) where rival meanings are deliberately tolerated, or in order to establish solidarity between speakers and exclude an overhearer from a conversation

1

Doctors diagnose patients for medical students in a language which they know the patient will not follow. Prisoners, children

POLITENESS MAXIMS- ROBIN LAKOFF

Don’t impose, i'M SORRY TO BOTHER YOU, trying to be polite, Give options: are you busy, Make your receiver feel good

COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLE

Speakers from different cultural backgrounds may have different interpretations of what it means to be true relevant, brief or clear, The people try to act efficiently together with others in human interaction

POLITENESS PRINCIPLE A UNIVERSAL PHENOMENON

All humans beings try to avoid intruding upon each other's territory and make the other person feel good

for example

in some parts of India, Taiwan and the Arabic speaking world, it is impolite to accept food when it is first offered. Only on the third offer it is appropriate to accept, and only a third refusal is considered definitive

TENSION BETWEEN TWO KINDS OF PRINCIPLES

There are situations, and types of relationships, in which one of purposes becomes dominant, and the other hardly matters at all

for example

in emergencies, when there is a need for immediate action, it is hardly appropriate to follow the politeness principle MOVE, Would you mind moving slightly

BIASED ATTITUDE

Biased on insufficient knowledge, false cultural and language stereotypes

STEREOTYPES

is popular belief about specific types of individuals, contain our personality, perception context and may be false, negative even insulting It comes from society, family, friends

DISCOURSE

any stretch of written or spoken language that is cohesive or coherent, It can be dialogue, conversation, novel

What does IQ involve

defining words, answering factual questions, solving aruthmetic problems

PERFORMANCE OF VISUAL CONCEPTUAL

identifing missing part, assembling puzzle, copying symbols quickly, arranging pictures to tell the story

THE SCALE

mentally reflective- 40 or below, extremally intelligent up to 100 or more

THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE

ROBERT STENBERG Triarchic theory of intelligence, categorize intelligence into 3 parts

COMPONENTAL ABILITY-ANALYTICAL INTELLIGENCE

The methods people use to process and analyze information

METACOGNITIVE COMPONENT

planning, strategy selection, monitoring of a task

PERFORMANCE COMPONENT

operations in the solving the problem for example encoding information, drawing comparison

KNOWLEDGE ACQUISITION COMPONENT

selective combination, when new and old information is organized, and selective comparison when new information is compared to

EXPERIMENTAL ABILITY

Combining past experiences, how people approach new and unfamiliar tasks

CONTEXTUAL ABILITY-practical intelligence

the ability to adapt to everyday life, how an individual adapts, shapes and selects a better environment

INTELLIGENCE

Is the ability to learn about and understand, and interact with one’s environment. It involves analysis, planning and problem solving

PHRENOLOGY introduced by Joseph Gall

pseudoscience Correlation of different brain shapes with various types of faculties the examination of a person's head to reveal character traits

HOWARD GARDNER – MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE

is a psychologist and Professor at Harvard University

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE THEORIES

Schools should cultivate skills and abilities which are valued in a given culture. 2. Teachers should approach the subject matter in a variety of ways

CUMMINGS

2 kinds of language ability

Cognitive academic language proficiency CALP

reading, grammar, vocabulary, dictation, writing

Basic interpersonal communication skills BICS

oral fluency, sociocultural aspects, listening, speaking, all humans are equiped to master basic skills

WHY APPLYING MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE IN SLA

Raising learner’s awareness with regard to the range of ways in which different individuals approach learning -Encouraging learners to find out what areas they are intelligent & develop these areas.

HOW? APPLYING MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE IN SLA

Raising the approach, planning classes, with activities, appealing to different kinds of intelligence.

8 KINDS OF INTELLIGENCE

- Logical mathematical intelligence (calculating numbers) - kinaesthetic intelligence (dancing) -interpersonal intelligence (meditatting) - visual intelligence (drawing) - linguistic intelligence - musical intelligence - naturalist intelligence liking nature - interpesronal intelligence (teaching others)

LEARNING STYLES

Cognitive styles – cognitive affection and physiological traits that are relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive interact with and respond to environment

GOALS

Diagnosing learning styles Developing self-aware learners

HOW TO DISCOVER LEARNING STYLES

- interviews with students - observing student’s behaviour - guide of self observation - self rating questionnaires

IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHERS:

-creating opportunies to experiment -implementing styles