History in numbers

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The «Disputation on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences» was made public in
in Latin: Disputatio pro declaratione virtutis indulgentiarum
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1517
Luther sent the 95 Theses enclosed with a letter to Albert of Brandenburg, Archbishop of Mainz, on 31 October 1517, a date now considered the start of the Reformation and commemorated annually as Reformation Day.
World's First Minicomputer Kit to Rival Commercial Models was announced in
/ˈælbəkɜːki/
A small firm in Albuquerque, New Mexico, named MITS (Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems) announced a computer kit called the Altair, which met the social as well as technical requirements for a small personal computer.
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1975
Roberts developed the first commercially successful microcomputer, the Altair 8800, which was featured on the January 1975 cover of Popular Electronics.
The basis for vaccination began on 14 May
Jenner subsequently proved that having been inoculated with cowpox, Phipps was immune to smallpox.
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1796
The basis for vaccination began in 1796 when an English doctor named Edward Jenner observed that milkmaids who had gotten cowpox did not show any symptoms of smallpox after variolation.
The Laboratory Instrument Computer was delivered in March
LINC ... «L»aboratory «In»strument «C»omputer
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1962
DEC's pioneer C. Gordon Bell states that the LINC project began in 1961, with first delivery in March 1962
The heliocentric theory was first published in
Copernicus did not only come up with a theory regarding the nature of the sun in relation to the earth, but thoroughly worked to debunk some of the minor details within the geocentric theory.
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1543
Copernicus' major work on his heliocentric theory was Dē revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres), published in the year of his death, 1543.
When did the Catholic Church lift the ban on heliocentrism?
Heinrich Schliemann was born on January 6, the same year in Neubukow.
Copernicus gets credit for being the European originator of heliocentrism with the publication of On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres in 1543. The Catholic Church, however, remained ground in its anti-Copernican beliefs until the 19th century.
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1822
Finally, in 1992, three years after Galileo Galilei's namesake spacecraft had been launched on its way to Jupiter, the Vatican formally and publicly cleared Galileo of any wrongdoing.
The Church eventually lifted the ban on Galileo's Dialogue in 1822, when it was common knowledge that the Earth was not the centre of the Universe.
Catholic Church formally declared heliocentrism to be heretical
Shakespeare died on 23 April that year, at the age of 52.
“De revolutionibus” initially met no resistance from the Catholic Church.
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1616
While the Catholic Church initially accepted heliocentricity, Catholics eventually joined the wave of Protestant opposition and banned the book in 1616.
Galileo's «Dialog of the Two World Systems» was published in
It marked a great triumph for Galileo: his arguments for Copernicus's system stood in print at last, and with the blessing of the Church.
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1632
And yet in 1632, he published his Dialogue, an imagined conversation between three men, one pro-Copernican, one pro-Ptolemaic, and one neutral, about astronomy and science.
When did Kary B. Mullis invent PCR?
Often heralded as one of the most important scientific advances in molecular biology, PCR revolutionised the study of DNA to such an extent that its creator Kary B. Mullis, was awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry. in 1993.
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1985
In 1985, Kary Mullis invented the process known as polymerase chain reaction (PCR), in which a small amount of DNA can be copied in large quantities over a short period of time.
After a 53 day siege, Constantinople fell on 29 May
The conquest of Constantinople was a key event of the Late Middle Ages and is sometimes considered the end of the Medieval period.
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1453
The attacking Ottoman army was commanded by the 21-year-old Sultan Mehmed II (later called "the Conqueror")
When did Richard the Lionheart massacre the Sarasans?
Saracens (/ˈsærəsən/) were primarily Arab Muslims as referred to by Christian writers in Europe during the Middle Ages.
Richard declared the lives of the Muslim defenders of Acre forfeit and set August 20 as the date for their execution.
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1191
King Richard arrived on the scene in June 1191 to find Acre under siege by a Christian army.
When did the Black Death arrive at Europe?
Charles University, Czech Universita Karlova, also called University of Prague was founded in that year by the Holy Roman emperor Charles IV, from whom it takes its name. It was the first university in central Europe.
A second variation - pneumonic plague - attacked the respiratory system and was spread by merely breathing the exhaled air of a victim. It was much more virulent than its bubonic cousin.
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1348
Bubonic plague is caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, but it may also cause septicaemic or pneumonic plagues.
The Black Death reached the shores of Italy in the spring of 1348 unleashing a rampage of death across Europe unprecedented in recorded history.
Sir Alexander Fleming, a Scottish researcher, is credited with the discovery of penicillin in
The U.K. passes Equal Franchise Act to make the voting age the same for men and women in the same year.
Since then, the discovery of penicillin changed the course of medicine and has enabled physicians to treat formerly severe and life-threatening illnesses such as bacterial endocarditis, meningitis, pneumococcal pneumonia, gonorrhoea and syphilis.
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1928
In 1928 Alexander Fleming first observed that colonies of the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus failed to grow in those areas of a culture that had been accidentally contaminated by the green mold Penicillium notatum.
America Sends Syphilis to Europe,
one year after the discovery of Guanahaní (Bahamas) through Columbus
After hundreds of years of suffering, the introduction of penicillin in the 1940s meant that infections such as syphilis, gonorrhoea and chlamydia could finally be cured.
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1493
It is surmised that this chain of transmission began in Spain in 1493 with the return of members of Columbus’s first voyage to the Caribbean Islands.
Mast cells were discovered by Paul Ehrlich in
Paul Ehrlich was born 14 March 1854 in Strehlen in the Prussian province of Lower Silesia in what is now south-west Poland.
Mast cells are very similar to basophil granulocytes in blood. Both are granulated cells that contain histamine and heparin, an anticoagulant.
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1877
Paul Ehrlich found a treatment for syphilis in 1909 thereby initiating and also naming the concept of chemotherapy...
Unlike other hematopoietic cells of the immune system, mast cells naturally occur in the human brain where they interact with the neuroimmune system.
M. tuberculosis, then known as the "tubercle bacillus", was first described by Robert Koch on 24 March
In the same year, German mathematician Ferdinand Lindemann published the transcendence of π.
As news on the etiology of tuberculosis spread worldwide, Koch became internationally famous.
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1882
On March 24, 1882, Koch presented his findings on tuberculosis at a meeting of the Berlin Physiological Society. That demonstration is now regarded as one of the most influential presentations in medical history.
The first bible was published before
The high quality and relatively low price of the Gutenberg Bible established the superiority of movable type, and printing presses rapidly spread across Europe, leading up to the Renaissance.
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1455
In March 1455, the future Pope Pius II wrote that he had seen pages from the Gutenberg Bible displayed in Frankfurt to promote the edition, and that either 158 or 180 copies had been printed,
When was the first discription in detail of the process of making gunpowder in Europe?
Roger Bacon described spectacles; elucidated the principles of reflection, refraction, and spherical aberration. He used a camera obscura (which projects an image through a pinhole) to observe eclipses of the Sun.
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1242
Sometime between 1277 and 1279, Bacon was condemned to prison by his fellow Franciscans because of certain “suspected novelties” in his teaching.
The Haymarket Riot took place in Chicago on May 4,
The same year as the statue of liberty was dedicated.
On May 1, this coalition initiated a general strike throughout the United States. On May 3, fighting broke out at the McCormick Reaper Works in Chicago, and at least two workers were killed by the police.
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1886
In 1886, a broad coalition of labor organizations joined to campaign for an eight-hour workday.
Bacillus anthracis was shown to cause disease by Robert Koch in
The telephone patent was issued to Bell in the same year.
Although monomorphic germ-theory and bacterial pleomorphic observation preceded him, Koch became the first to link a specific bacterium with a specific disease.
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1876
He presented his experiments to Ferdinand Cohn, Germany's most renowned botanist of the time. Deeply impressed, Cohn offered to publish Koch's paper in his own botanical journal. That paper was published in 1876, when Koch was thirty-two years old.
Ronald Reagan defeated incumbent President Jimmy Carter in
In 1994, in a letter to the American people, Reagan disclosed that he had been diagnosed with Alzheimer disease.
Shortly after taking office, he was wounded in an assassination attempt.
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1980
In addition to placing a roadblock in the path of U.S.-Iranian relations, it was also widely believed the Iranian hostage crises contributed to Carter’s defeat by Reagan in the 1980 presidential election.
Reagan gave his second inaugural address, Jan. 21,
Using slogans such as “It’s morning in America” and “America is back,” his reelection campaign emphasized the country’s economic prosperity and its renewed leadership role in world affairs.
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1985
In seeking to be reelected in 1984, Reagan had carried 49 of 50 states.
Nixon announced his resignation on the evening of August 8,
Despite his resounding victory, Nixon would soon be forced to resign in disgrace in the worst political scandal in United States history.
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1974
But Nixon’s resignation in 1974 put Vice President Gerald Ford in the Oval Office.
Pres. Richard M. Nixon delivered his first inaugural address, January 20,
Nixon won the election by a narrow margin
Had he taken this step earlier, Humphrey might have won the election, as polls showed him gaining rapidly on Nixon in the final days of the campaign.
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1969
Nixon won the Republican nomination for president in 1968 by putting together a coalition that included Southern conservatives.
President Richard Nixon’s second Inauguration on January 20,
Over 100,000 antiwar demonstrators gather at the Lincoln Memorial during President Richard Nixon’s second Inauguration, for a March Against Death protesting renewed U.S. bombing in Vietnam.
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1973
Renominated in 1972, Nixon defeated his Democratic challenger in one of the largest landslide victories in the history of American presidential elections: 46.7 million to 28.9 million in the popular vote and 520 to 17 in the electoral vote.
Mayflower Day commemorates the day the ship set sail from Plymouth, England in
For the next few weeks, the Pilgrims explored Cape Cod and eventually settled on Plymouth for their plantation.
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1620
On September 16 of 1620, the Mayflower set sail from Plymouth, England with 102 souls on board. These colonists- men, women, children, some seeking fortune, some seeking religious freedom – were later known as pilgrims.
An International Workers' Day (May Day) celebration was attacked by police in
In defiance of a ban on public gatherings in Berlin, the KPD had organized a rally to celebrate May Day.
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1929
In the lead-up to the 1929 celebration of International Workers' Day on the first of May, KPD-affiliated newspapers urged members and sympathizers to take to the streets.
Abraham Lincoln was assassinated by stage actor John Wilkes Booth on April 14,
Occurring near the end of the American Civil War, the assassination was part of a larger conspiracy intended by Booth to revive the Confederate cause by eliminating the three most important officials of the United States government.
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1865
The Lincoln catafalque is a catafalque hastily constructed in 1865 to support the casket of Abraham Lincoln while the president's body lay in state in the Capitol Rotunda in Washington, D.C.
They founded Degania, the first kibbutz, in
the mother of all Kibutzim
Many of the Second Aliyah immigrants were idealists, inspired by the revolutionary ideals then sweeping the Russian Empire who sought to create a communal agricultural settlement system in Palestine.
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1910
Degania Alef was founded in 1909 by seven Second Aliyah Halutzim, who came from Romny, Russia, on land acquired by the Jewish National Fund.
The first Kiev-Pogrom began on 26 April,
The direct trigger for the pogrom in Kiev, as in other places, was the assassination of Tsar Alexander II, for which the instigators blamed the Russian Jews.
The Kiev pogrom is considered the worst of the pogroms that swept through south-western Imperial Russia
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1881
The pogroms of the 1880s took place during the period of confusion which prevailed in The Kiev pogrom of 1881 lasted for three days. It began on 26 April (7 May), 1881 the city of Kiev itself and spread to villages in the surrounding region.
The Valentine's Day Massacre of
In the Late Middles Ages, Strasbourg was the most important city on the Upper Rhine. Since it had rid itself of rule by the bishop in 1262, the city was autonomous and effectively enjoyed Imperial immediacy.
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1349
The Strasbourg massacre occurred on February 14, 1349, when several hundred Jews were publicly burnt to death, and the rest of them expelled from the city as part of the Black Death persecutions.
William crowned king of England
He was crowned William I (although is more commonly referred to as William the Conqueror) in Westminster Abbey, the burial place of Edward the Confessor, the king from whom William derived his claim to the throne.
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1066
William I, usually known as William the Conqueror and sometimes William the Bastard, was the first Norman monarch of England, reigning from 1066 until his death in 1087.
Battle of the Little Bighorn, also called Custer’s Last Stand, June 25,
The same yaer Koch's discovery of the anthrax bacillus was published.
Only a single badly wounded horse remained from Custer’s annihilated battalion. That horse, Comanche, managed to survive, and for many years it would appear in 7th Cavalry parades, saddled but riderless.
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1876
Native American accounts of the battle are especially laudatory of the courageous actions of Crazy Horse, leader of the Oglala band of Lakota.
The Battle of the Little Bighorn, fought on June 25, 1876, near the Little Bighorn River in Montana Territory, pitted federal troops led by Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer against a band of Lakota Sioux and Cheyenne warriors.
When was the discovery of the Magellan Street?
After navigating through the South American strait, three ships under the command of Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan reach the Pacific Ocean, becoming the first Europeans to sail from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific.
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1520
On November 28, 1520, the Trinidad, the Concepción, and the Victoria entered the “Sea of the South,” from their calm crossing later called the Pacific Ocean.
At the news that the ocean had been sighted, the iron-willed admiral reportedly broke down and cried with joy.
The French Indian War started in
Also known as the Seven Years’ War, this New World conflict marked another chapter in the long imperial struggle between Britain and France.
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1756
When France’s expansion into the Ohio River valley brought repeated conflict with the claims of the British colonies, a series of battles led to the official British declaration of war in 1756.
The Seven year's War of North America lasted until
The Seven Years’ War actually lasted nine years.
With a stroke of the pen, Treaty of Paris stripped France of its North American empire. Spain, which allied with France, was forced to cede Florida to the British,
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1763
Nine years of armed conflict between the two countries on the North American continent ended with the ratification of the Treaty of Paris by the British Parliament on February 10, 1763.
The Dutch military finally withdrew from Brussels in
In 1890, the date of the National Day was changed to 21 July to commemorate the date of Belgium's first King Leopold I's accession to the throne.
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1830
Belgium gained independence in 1830 when it broke away from the rest of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
Helmut Schmidt was voted out of office in favor of Helmut Kohl (vote of no confidence) on 1st October in
The vote was much easier than the 1972 one since it was clear that the FDP wanted to switch over to the CDU. Indeed, the FDP was already in negotiations at the time the vote happened.
To obtain a clearer majority in the Bundestag, after that vote, Helmut Kohl put up a motion of confidence in which the new CDU-FDP coalition intentionally voted against the Chancellor that it just put into power.
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1982
The new Bundestag was elected in March 1983, yielding a strong majority for the new coalition, which eventually lasted until 1998.
Helmut Kohl became chancellor through the constructive no-confidence vote in August 1982, his government purposely set out to lose a simple no-confidence provision in order to bring about new elections.
When did the Eighty Years War end?
The Eighty Years' War or Dutch War of Independence was a revolt of the Seventeen Provinces of what are today the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg against Philip II of Spain, the sovereign of the Habsburg Netherlands.
The Peace of Münster is sometimes considered the beginning of the Dutch Golden Age.
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1648
Peace of Münster was signed by the Dutch Republic and the Kingdom of Spain on 30 January 1648, and was ratified in Münster on 15 May 1648.
Which year is considered the Birth of Photography?
It appears that three years after Niépce’s death, Daguerre had discovered that a latent image forms on a plate of iodized silver and that it can be “developed” and made visible by exposure to mercury vapour, which settles on the exposed parts of the image
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1839
In 1839 Niépce’s son and Daguerre sold full rights to the daguerreotype and the heliograph to the French government, in return for annuities for life.
Chicago Pile 1 (CP-1) was activated, becoming the world's first nuclear reactor on December 2,
The secret development of the reactor was the first major technical achievement for the Manhattan Project, the Allied effort to create atomic bombs during World War II.
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1942
Fermi led the team that designed and built Chicago Pile-1, which went critical on 2 December 1942, demonstrating the first human-created, self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction.
Darwin’s seminal work On the Origin of Species, published in
The same year on January 27, Wilhelm II, better known as "Kaiser Bill," was born. He was the last German Emperor and King of Prussia, and a prominent figure of the First World War.
Darwin formulated his bold theory in private, after returning from a voyage around the world aboard HMS Beagle, but it was not until two decades later, he finally gave it full public expression in his world-famous book.
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1859
Darwin would not sail as a lowly surgeon-naturalist but as a self-financed gentleman companion to the 26-year-old captain, Robert Fitzroy, an aristocrat who feared the loneliness of command.
Indira Gandhi, ‘Iron Lady’ of India, was assassinated on the morning of October 31,
Mrs Thatcher, who described the former Indian Prime Minister as a "member of my own family", flew down to New Delhi to attend her funeral on November 3 that year against the backdrop of at least two documented threats to her life.
The assassination sparked four days of riots that left more than 8,000 Indian Sikhs dead in revenge attacks.
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1984(.)
However, in June 1984, she ordered an army raid on a Sikh temple in Punjab to flush out armed Sikh extremists, setting off a series of death threats.
On 31 October 1984, Indira Gandhi, Prime Minister of India, was killed by her Sikh bodyguards.
Margaret Thatcher becomes Britain’s first female prime minister on May 4,
Thatcher’s three consecutive terms in office marked the longest continuous tenure of a British prime minister since 1827.
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1979(.)
Thatcher’s decision to go to war to recover the islands was at odds with several members of Parliament and close advisers, as well as U.S. President Ronald Reagan, who repeatedly urged peace talks.
A general election was called after the Callaghan ministry lost a motion of no confidence in early 1979. The Conservatives won a 44-seat majority in the House of Commons, and Thatcher became the first female British prime minister.
The Battle of Zenta was fought between Ottoman and Holy League armies during the Great Turkish War on 11 September
After fourteen years of war, the battle at Zenta proved to be the catalyst for peace; within months mediators of both sides started peace negotiations in Sremski Karlovci under the supervision of English ambassador to Constantinople.
The scale of the defeat forced the Ottoman Empire into the Treaty of Karlowitz ceding Croatia, Hungary, Transylvania and Slavonia to Austria. It was one of the Ottoman Empire's greatest defeats and ultimately signalled the end of its European dominance.
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1697
In a surprise attack, Habsburg Imperial forces commanded by Prince Eugene of Savoy engaged the Turkish army while it was halfway through crossing the Tisza river at Zenta, 80 miles northwest of Belgrade.
The battle was the most decisive engagement of the war, and it saw the Ottomans suffer an overwhelming defeat by an Imperial force half as large sent by Emperor Leopold I.
On March 1, Leopold I ordered the Jews out of Vienna and all of Austria. The deadline was August 1,
The Great Synagogue of Vienna was converted into what became the Leopold Church, just as the Jewish quarter came to be known as Leopoldstadt. A second, smaller synagogue was torn down and replaced by St. Margaret’s Church.
It was only in 1624 that the Jews had been officially permitted to return to Vienna after the previous expulsion, in 1421. They found themselves confined to a newly established ghetto that grew steadily.
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1670
In April 1668, a group of upright Viennese appeared before the emperor to request the removal of the Jews “root and branch.”
It was only a matter of time before the emperor, for what he called “the glory of God,” ordered the removal of the entire community – 3,000 to 4,000 people. That was on March 1, 1670.
The Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States, ratified in
"The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation."
The American Civil War resulted in the end of the institution of slavery, and in its aftermath many women abolitionists put on hold their desire for universal suffrage in favour of ensuring suffrage for newly freed male slaves.
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1920
A vigorous campaign brought congressional passage of a proposed Amendment in 1919 and the necessary state ratifications in 1920.
The Nineteenth Amendment was adopted after a long campaign by its advocates, who had largely despaired of attaining their goal through modification of individual state laws.
Yitzhak Rabin was assassinated in
U.S. Pres. Bill Clinton looking on as Yitzhak Rabin (left) shakes hands with Yasser Arafat after signing the Oslo Accords.
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1995
Shortly after Oslo II was passed in the Knesset, Rabin decided on a public campaign to rally his supporters, and it was following the first such rally in Tel Aviv in November 1995 that he was assassinated by a Jewish religious fanatic.
Hepatitis B virus was discovered in
Today, the hepatitis B vaccine is often one of the first vaccines babies receive shortly after birth. Since it became commercially available in 1982, more than 1 billion people worldwide have received the vaccine.
Blumberg and Millman discovered people suffering from hepatitis B had antigens too and realized that injecting them into a patient produces antibodies. Separating the antigens from the blood of chronic hepatitis B patients led to the coveted vaccine.
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1967
In 1976, Dr. Blumberg won the Nobel Prize in Medicine for discovering the hepatitis B virus. He and his colleagues discovered the virus in 1967, and invented the first hepatitis B vaccine in 1969.
Czar Alexander ll was assassinated on March 13,
He relaxed some of the restrictions placed against the Jews of Russia by his father, including abolishing the Cantonist system of Russification which had been established in 1827.
Czar Alexander II, the leader of Russia, was assassinated in St. Petersburg when a bomb was thrown into his carriage.
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1881
The assassination of Czar Alexander II became a major turning point in Jewish history. A month later, a wave of pogroms spread throughout the southwestern areas of the Russian Empire and affected hundreds of Jewish communities.
Approximately 2.3 million Jews left Russia between 1881 and 1930 with the great majority coming to the United States, North and South American, South Africa and Australia.

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